Active TGF-1 induces many pathways but we highlight here Rho-dependent processes that include increases (light gray arrows left) in actin polymerization, dissociation of MRTF-A from G-actin, and translocation of MRTF-A to the nucleus where with SRF induces cytoskeletal genes, some focal adhesion proteins, including Hic-5 (black arrow, demonstrated that when carbon tetrachloride is removed and fibrosis subsides, 50% of the myofibroblasts do not undergo apoptosis
Active TGF-1 induces many pathways but we highlight here Rho-dependent processes that include increases (light gray arrows left) in actin polymerization, dissociation of MRTF-A from G-actin, and translocation of MRTF-A to the nucleus where with SRF induces cytoskeletal genes, some focal adhesion proteins, including Hic-5 (black arrow, demonstrated that when carbon tetrachloride is removed and fibrosis subsides, 50% of the myofibroblasts do not undergo apoptosis.109 Instead, the myofibroblast reverts to a phenotype that resembles an activated form of the quiescent hepatic stellate cell, the myofibroblast progenitor cell in liver. play in pathologies as disparate as cutaneous scarring, organ fibrosis, and tumor progression, knowledge gained in the areas of intracellular signaling networks, mechanical signal transduction, extracellular matrix biology, and cell fate will support efforts to develop new therapies with a wide impact. Open in a separate window Livingston Van De Water, PhD Scope In normal acute wounds, myofibroblasts are transiently present and orchestrate time limited and spatially restricted scarring. However, when myofibroblasts persist at sites of pathogenic scarring, organ fibrosis, or within the tumor stroma, exuberant deposition and contraction of extracellular matrix (ECM) occur. Here, we will review data on the cellular mechanisms that govern myofibroblast function and persistence, focusing on recent evidence that these cells respond to mechanical signals and are the mechanically active cells responsible for wound contraction. Translational Relevance Given their central role in scarring and fibrosis, and the tumor microenvironment, myofibroblasts are important therapeutic targets. To succeed in developing therapies to limit myofibroblast function, we must understand the extracellular inputs and intracellular signaling networks that govern myofibroblast function, and coverslip or culture dish) but take on a different morphology when myofibroblasts are enmeshed in a collagen gel (Fig. 1). Compared with fibroblasts, myofibroblasts express increased amounts of Type I and Type III collagen, proteoglycans, specific forms of fibronectin, and a plethora of proteins including contractile proteins, growth factors, cytokines, matricellular proteins, and proteins that regulate the cell cycle and cell fate.6 Open in a separate window Figure 1. Morphology of the myofibroblast. (A, B) Cartoons depicting the morphology and cytoskeletal components of a fibroblast (A) versus a myofibroblast (B). For more detail, see text. (C, D) Immunofluorescence images showing the stress fiber organization (red-phalloidin staining) and focal adhesion proteins (A, green-Hic-5 immunostaining; B, green-vinculin immunostaining) of a myofibroblast on a glass coverslip (C) or in a collagen gel (D). Scale bars: (C) 50?m; (D) 40?m. Recent studies have also demonstrated that in addition to normal connective tissue fibroblasts, there are other sources of myofibroblast progenitors. These progenitor cell types include a disintegrin and metalloproteinase-12 (ADAM-12)-positive perivascular cells, fibrocytes, and cells derived from an epithelialCmesenchymal transition (EMT).7C9 While it is clear that these cells have the potential to form myofibroblasts, their total contribution to the myofibroblast population that forms in an acute wound is unclear. Although for the purposes of Rabbit Polyclonal to SFRS7 this review we will focus on the myofibroblast phenotype in cutaneous wounds, pathogenic scars, organ fibrosis, and tumor stroma, it is important to note that cells with features of myofibroblasts are also found in some developing tissues and specialized normal adult tissues (Table 1).10C21 Their role in these normal tissue settings is not clear, but given the prominence of the contractile apparatus in myofibroblasts this likely involves a mechanical component. An important concept that has become increasingly clear is that under some circumstances myofibroblasts are good, as in normal acute wounds and some normal tissues and under pathogenic settings myofibroblasts are bad, depositing and contracting excessive scar and elaborating growth factors and cytokines that perpetuate the pathology. Table 1. Fibroblastic cells of normal organs with myofibroblastic features (1987)11Intestinal pericryptal cellsSappino (1989)12Intestinal villous coreKaye (1968)13Testicular stromaSkalli (1986)14of the ovaryCzernobilsky (1989)15Periodontal ligamentBeertsen (1974)16Adrenal-gland capsuleBressler (1973)17Hepatic perisinusoidal cellsYokoi (1984)18Lung septaKapanci (1992)19Bone-marrow stromaCharbord (1990)20Capillary and venular pericytesLindahl and Betsholtz (1998)21 Open in a separate window Functions at the acute wound site During normal SIB 1893 acute wound healing, the myofibroblast dramatically upregulates collagen and fibronectin deposition over an interval of 7C14 days in the rodent models commonly employed (Fig. 2).22C25 However, the duration of myofibroblasts varies depending on the size and type of cutaneous wound, and the animal species.2,26 Importantly, exuberant expression and deposition of a collagen-rich ECM is a prominent feature of scarring and fibrosis, which is closely associated with the presence of SM -actinCpositive myofibroblasts.27 Open in a separate window Figure 2. Type I collagen mRNA expression in normal dermis versus wound tissue. Paraffin sections of normal rat skin (A) or an 8-day wound (B) were reacted with an 35S-labeled transcribed RNA probe reactive with Type I Collagen. Note that normal dermal fibroblasts (arrows) in the reticular dermis (A) are modestly labeled with the probe while fibroblasts in the wound (B) are heavily labeled. Photographic.This growing foundation of information will provide us with important new nodes within the network of signals that govern myofibroblast function. is critical to myofibroblast function via its effects on gene expression, cellular contraction, and paracrine signaling with neighboring cells. In addition, while apoptosis is clearly one pathway that can limit myofibroblast lifespan, recent data suggest that pathogenic myofibroblasts can become senescent and adopt a more beneficial phenotype, or may revert to a quiescent state, thereby limiting their function. Future Directions Given the important role that myofibroblasts play in pathologies as disparate as cutaneous scarring, organ fibrosis, and tumor progression, knowledge gained in the areas of intracellular signaling networks, mechanical signal transduction, extracellular matrix biology, and cell fate will support efforts to develop new therapies with a wide impact. Open in a separate window Livingston Van De Water, PhD Scope In normal acute wounds, myofibroblasts are transiently present and orchestrate time limited and spatially restricted scarring. However, when myofibroblasts persist at sites of pathogenic scarring, organ fibrosis, or within the tumor stroma, exuberant deposition and contraction of extracellular matrix (ECM) occur. Here, SIB 1893 we will review data on the cellular mechanisms that govern myofibroblast function and persistence, focusing on recent evidence that these cells respond to mechanical signals and are the mechanically active cells responsible for wound contraction. Translational Relevance Given their central role in scarring and fibrosis, and the tumor microenvironment, myofibroblasts are important therapeutic targets. To succeed in developing therapies to limit myofibroblast function, we must understand the extracellular inputs and intracellular signaling networks that govern SIB 1893 myofibroblast function, and coverslip or culture dish) but take on a different morphology when myofibroblasts are enmeshed in a collagen gel (Fig. 1). Compared with fibroblasts, myofibroblasts express increased amounts of Type I and Type III collagen, proteoglycans, specific forms of fibronectin, and a plethora of proteins including contractile proteins, growth factors, cytokines, matricellular proteins, and proteins that regulate the cell cycle and cell fate.6 Open in a separate window Figure 1. Morphology of the myofibroblast. (A, B) Cartoons depicting the morphology and cytoskeletal components of a fibroblast (A) versus a myofibroblast (B). For more detail, see text. (C, D) Immunofluorescence images showing the stress fiber organization (red-phalloidin staining) and focal adhesion proteins (A, green-Hic-5 immunostaining; B, green-vinculin immunostaining) of a myofibroblast on a glass coverslip (C) or in a collagen gel (D). Scale bars: (C) 50?m; (D) 40?m. Recent studies have also demonstrated that in addition to normal connective tissue fibroblasts, there are other sources of myofibroblast progenitors. These progenitor cell types include a disintegrin SIB 1893 and metalloproteinase-12 (ADAM-12)-positive perivascular cells, fibrocytes, and cells derived from an epithelialCmesenchymal transition (EMT).7C9 While it is clear that these cells have the potential to form myofibroblasts, their total contribution to the myofibroblast population that forms in an acute wound is unclear. Although for the purposes of this review we will focus on the myofibroblast phenotype in cutaneous wounds, pathogenic scars, organ fibrosis, and tumor stroma, it is important to note that cells with features of myofibroblasts are also found in some developing tissues and specialized normal adult tissues (Table 1).10C21 Their role in these normal tissue settings is not clear, but given the prominence of the contractile apparatus in myofibroblasts this likely involves a mechanical component. An important concept that has become increasingly clear is that under some circumstances myofibroblasts are good, as in normal acute wounds and some normal cells and under pathogenic settings myofibroblasts are bad, depositing and contracting excessive scar and elaborating growth factors and cytokines that perpetuate the pathology. Table 1. Fibroblastic cells of normal organs with myofibroblastic features (1987)11Intestinal pericryptal cellsSappino (1989)12Intestinal villous coreKaye (1968)13Testicular stromaSkalli (1986)14of the ovaryCzernobilsky (1989)15Periodontal ligamentBeertsen (1974)16Adrenal-gland capsuleBressler (1973)17Hepatic perisinusoidal cellsYokoi (1984)18Lung septaKapanci (1992)19Bone-marrow stromaCharbord (1990)20Capillary and venular pericytesLindahl and Betsholtz (1998)21 Open in a separate window Functions in the acute wound site During normal acute wound healing, the myofibroblast dramatically upregulates collagen and fibronectin deposition over an interval of 7C14 days in the rodent models commonly employed.